Benefits of CBD-infused wine

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Cannabidiol (CBD) is a phytocannabinoid, one of 113 identified cannabinoids in cannabis plants, along with tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and accounts for up to 40% of the plant's extract.^[16] Medically, it is an anticonvulsant used to treat multiple forms of epilepsy.^[4] It was discovered in 1940 and, as of 2024 clinical research on CBD included studies related to the treatment of anxiety, addiction, psychosis, movement disorders, and pain, but there is insufficient high-quality evidence that CBD is effective for these conditions.^{[17][18][19][20]} CBD is sold as an herbal dietary supplement and promoted with yet unproven claims of particular therapeutic effects.^[21]

Cannabidiol can be taken internally in multiple ways, including by inhaling cannabis smoke or vapor, swallowing it by mouth, and through use of an aerosol spray into the cheek.^[22][23] It may be supplied as CBD oil containing only CBD as the active ingredient (excluding THC or terpenes), CBD-dominant hemp extract oil, capsules, dried cannabis, or prescription liquid solution.^[4][19] CBD does not have the same psychoactivity as THC,^[24][25] and can modulate the psychoactive effects of THC on the body if both are present.^{[16][24][26][27]} Conversion of CBD to THC can occur when CBD is heated to temperatures between 250–300 °C, potentially leading to its partial transformation into THC.^[28]

In the United States, the cannabidiol drug Epidiolex was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2018 for the treatment of two seizure disorders.^[4] While the 2018 United States Farm Bill removed hemp and hemp extracts (including CBD) from the Controlled Substances Act, the marketing and sale of CBD formulations for medical use or as an ingredient in dietary supplements or manufactured foods remains illegal under FDA regulation, as of 2024^[update].^[29][30]

In the United States, the FDA has indicated only one brand of prescription cannabidiol called Epidiolex for the treatment of seizures associated with Dravet syndrome, Lennox–Gastaut syndrome, or tuberous sclerosis complex in people one year of age and older.^{[4][31][32][33]} While Epidiolex treatment is generally well tolerated, it is associated with minor adverse effects, such as gastrointestinal upset, decreased appetite, lethargy, sleepiness, and poor sleep quality.^{[4][32][34][33]}

In the European Union, Epidyolex is indicated for use as adjunctive therapy of seizures associated with Lennox–Gastaut syndrome or Dravet syndrome, in conjunction with clobazam, for people two years of age and older.^[10] In 2020, the label for Epidiolex in the US was expanded to include seizures associated with tuberous sclerosis complex. Epidiolex/Epidyolex is the first prescription formulation of plant-derived cannabidiol approved by regulatory bodies in the US and Europe.^[35]

Research on other uses for cannabidiol includes several neurological disorders, but the findings have not been confirmed to establish such uses in clinical practice.^{[14][18][19][24][36][37][38]} In October 2019, the FDA issued an advisory warning that the effects of CBD during pregnancy or breastfeeding are unknown, indicating that the safety, doses, interactions with other drugs or foods, and side effects of CBD are not clinically defined, and may pose a risk to the mother and infant.^[39]

Many claims are made for the therapeutic benefit of cannabidiol that are not backed by sound evidence. Some claims, such as treatment of cancer, are pseudoscience.^[21]

In 2020, the label for Epidiolex in the US was expanded to include treatment of seizures associated with tuberous sclerosis.^[31]

Acclaimed for relieving chronic pain, some researchers conclude that the evidence is insufficient to determine the effectiveness of CBD in pain relief, primarily due to the challenging access to pure CBD.^[40]

CBD oil is used for massage therapy as a substitute for body oil and for its health benefits.^[41]

Cannabidiol does not appear to have any intoxicating effects^[42] such as those caused by ∆⁹-THC in cannabis, but it is under preliminary research for its possible anxiolytic and antipsychotic effects.^[18][19][25] As the legal landscape and understanding about the differences in medical cannabinoids unfolds, experts are working to distinguish "medical cannabis" (with varying degrees of psychotropic effects and deficits in executive function) from "medical CBD therapies", which would commonly present as having a reduced or non-psychoactive side-effect profile.^[19][25][43]

Various strains of "medical cannabis" are found to have a significant variation in the ratios of CBD-to-THC and are known to contain other non-psychotropic cannabinoids.^[44] Any psychoactive cannabis, regardless of its CBD content, is derived from the flower (or bud) of the genus Cannabis. As defined by US federal law, non-psychoactive hemp (also commonly termed "industrial hemp"), regardless of its CBD content, is any part of the cannabis plant, whether growing or not, containing a ∆⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol concentration of no more than 0.3% on a dry-weight basis.^[45] In the United States, certain standards are required for legal growing, cultivating, and producing the hemp plant, but there are no federal standards for quality being enforced in the hemp industry. Certain state regulations are in place, but vary state to state.^[46] For instance, the Colorado Industrial Hemp Program registers growers of industrial hemp and samples crops to verify that the dry-weight THC concentration does not exceed 0.3%.^[45]

CBD is present as an active constituent of cannabis, which is used both recreationally and medically.

Nabiximols (brand name Sativex), an oromucosal spray made of a complex botanical mixture containing cannabidiol (CBD), delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and additional cannabinoid and non-cannabinoid constituents from cannabis sativa plants, was approved by Health Canada in 2005, to treat central neuropathic pain in multiple sclerosis, and in 2007, for cancer-related pain.^[47] In New Zealand, Sativex is "approved for use as an add-on treatment for symptom improvement in people with moderate to severe spasticity due to multiple sclerosis who have not responded adequately to other anti-spasticity medication."^[48]

Epidiolex (Epidyolex in Europe) is an orally administered cannabidiol solution.^[4][10] It was approved in 2018 for treatment of two rare forms of childhood epilepsy, Lennox–Gastaut syndrome and Dravet syndrome, and seizures associated with tuberous sclerosis complex.^[4][10] In the US, it is approved in these indications for people one year of age and older.^[4]

Research indicates that cannabidiol may reduce adverse effects of THC, particularly those causing intoxication and sedation, but only at high doses.^[49] Safety studies of cannabidiol showed it is well tolerated, but may cause fatigue, somnolence, sedation, diarrhea, or changes in appetite as common adverse effects, with the most common being somnolence and sedation. Side effects of CBD are dose related.^[50] Epidiolex documentation lists sleepiness, insomnia and poor quality sleep, decreased appetite, diarrhea, and fatigue.^[4][51]

In November 2019, the FDA issued concerns about the safety of cannabidiol, stating that CBD use has potential to cause hepatotoxicity, interfere with the mechanisms of prescription drugs, produce gastrointestinal disorders, or affect alertness and mood.^[52] Over 2020–23, the FDA updated its safety concerns about CBD,^[53] acknowledging the unknown effects of protracted use, how it affects the developing brain, fetus, or infants during breastfeeding, whether it interacts with dietary supplements or prescription drugs, whether male fertility is affected, and its possible side effects, such as drowsiness.^[54]

As of September 2019^[update], 1,085 people contacted US poison control centers about CBD-induced illnesses, doubling the number of cases over the 2018 rate and increasing by 9 times the case numbers of 2017.^[55] Of cases reported in 2019, more than 33% received medical attention and 46 people were admitted to a hospital intensive care unit, possibly due to exposure to other products, or drug interactions with CBD.^[56]

In 2022, the FDA stated that "scientific studies show possible harm to the male reproductive system, including testicular atrophy, harm to the liver, and interactions with certain medications. The FDA has not found adequate information showing how much CBD can be consumed, and for how long, before causing harm. This is particularly true for vulnerable populations like children and those who are pregnant."^[57]

Laboratory evidence indicated that cannabidiol may reduce THC clearance, increasing plasma concentrations which may raise THC availability to receptors and enhance its effect in a dose-dependent manner.^[58][59] In vitro, cannabidiol inhibited the activity of voltage-dependent sodium and potassium channels, which may affect neural activity.^[60] A recent study using X-ray crystallography showed that CBD binds inside the sodium channel pore at a novel site at the interface of the fenestrations and the central hydrophobic cavity of the channel. Binding at this site blocks the transmembrane-spanning sodium ion translocation pathway, providing a molecular mechanism for channel inhibition, which could contribute to a reduced excitability.^[61] A small clinical trial reported that CBD partially inhibited the CYP2C-catalyzed hydroxylation of THC to 11-OH-THC.^[62] Little is known about potential drug interactions, but CBD mediates a decrease in clobazam metabolism.^[63] Work with human liver microsomes shows that cannabidiol inhibits CYP3A5 and CYP3A4 to some degree.^[64]

In vitro, cannabidiol has low affinity for, and acts as a negative allosteric modulator of the CB₁ cannabinoid receptor^[65][66]

Cannabidiol may be an antagonist of GPR55, a G protein-coupled receptor and putative non-homologous CB₃ cannabinoid receptor shown by in vitro studies to be widely distributed in the brain.^[67][68][69] Cannabidiol may interact with various neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, dopamine, and GABA.^[67][68][70]

As of 2024, the cellular effects and mechanisms of cannabidiol in vivo are unknown,^[4][10] as research to date has been inconclusive and based on laboratory studies.^[67] The anticonvulsant effects provided by cannabidiol (Epidiolex) in people with certain forms of epilepsy do not appear to involve cannabinoid receptors.^[4] A possible mechanism for the effects of cannabidiol on seizures is by affecting the neuronal movement of calcium in brain structures involved in the excessive electrical activity of seizures.^[10]

The oral bioavailability of cannabidiol is approximately 6% in fasting state and 36.5—57.3% in fed-state^[71] in humans, while its bioavailability via inhalation is 11 to 45% (mean 31%).^{[11][12][71][72]} The oral bioavailability of cannabidiol varies based on several factors such as formulation,^[72] dose, and food intake.^[71] The sublingual bioavailability of cannabidiol is approximately 12 to 35%.^[73] The elimination half-life of cannabidiol in blood is 56 to 61 hours after oral doses twice per day over 7 days.^[4] Based on the pharmacokinetic analysis of long-term dosing of cannabidiol in humans, the terminal elimination half-life is estimated to be >134 h.^[71] Cannabidiol is metabolized in the liver as well as in the intestines by cytochrome P450 enzymes.^[4][68]

At room temperature, cannabidiol is a colorless crystalline solid.^[74] In strongly basic media and the presence of air, it is oxidized to cannabinodiol (CBND) and a quinone called HU-331.^[75] Under acidic conditions it cyclizes to THC,^[76] which also occurs during pyrolysis,^[77] and during smoking.^[28][78] The synthesis of cannabidiol has been accomplished by several research groups.^[79][80][81]

Category	Compound	Description
Analog	4'-Fluorocannabidiol	fluorinated cannabidiol derivative of CBD
Analog	Cannabidibutol (CBDB)	an analogue to tetrahydrocannabutol (THCB)
Analog	Cannabidiol diacetate	a semi-synthetic derivative of CBD
Analog	Cannabidiol dimethyl ether (CBDD)	an analog of CBD
Analog	H4-CBD	a structural analog of CBD
Analog	HU-320	a structural analog of CBD
Analog	KLS-13019	a structural analog of CBD
Homologue	8,9-Dihydrocannabidiol (H2CBD)	synthetic derivative of CBD
Homologue	Cannabidiorcol (CBD-C1)	a homologue of CBD
Homologue	Cannabidiphorol (CBDP)	the heptyl-homologue of CBD
Homologue	Cannabidivarin (CBDV)	a homologue of CBD
Homologue	CBD-DMH	synthetic homologue of CBD
Homologue	Δ-6-Cannabidiol	a positional isomer of CBD
Isomer	Abnormal cannabidiol	a synthetic regioisomer of CBD
Metabolite	7-Hydroxycannabidiol (7-OH-CBD)	an active metabolite of CBD
Precursor	Cannabidiolic acid (CBDA)	precursor to CBD

Cannabis produces CBD through the same metabolic pathway as THC, until the next to last step, where CBDA synthase performs catalysis instead of THCA synthase.^[84]

Cannabidiol's 7 double bond isomers and their 30 stereoisomers

Formal numbering			Terpenoid numbering		Number of stereoisomers	Natural occurrence	Convention on Psychotropic Substances Schedule	Structure
Short name	Chiral centers	Full name	Short name	Chiral centers
Δ5-Cannabidiol	1 and 3	2-(6-isopropenyl-3-methyl-5-cyclohexen-1-yl)-5-pentyl-1,3-benzenediol	Δ4-Cannabidiol	1 and 3	4	No	Unscheduled
Δ4-Cannabidiol	1, 3 and 6	2-(6-isopropenyl-3-methyl-4-cyclohexen-1-yl)-5-pentyl-1,3-benzenediol	Δ5-Cannabidiol	1, 3 and 4	8	No	Unscheduled
Δ3-Cannabidiol	1 and 6	2-(6-isopropenyl-3-methyl-3-cyclohexen-1-yl)-5-pentyl-1,3-benzenediol	Δ6-Cannabidiol	3 and 4	4	Yes	Unscheduled
Δ3,7-Cannabidiol	1 and 6	2-(6-isopropenyl-3-methylenecyclohex-1-yl)-5-pentyl-1,3-benzenediol	Δ1,7-Cannabidiol	3 and 4	4	No	Unscheduled
Δ2-Cannabidiol	1 and 6	2-(6-isopropenyl-3-methyl-2-cyclohexen-1-yl)-5-pentyl-1,3-benzenediol	Δ1-Cannabidiol	3 and 4	4	Yes	Unscheduled
Δ1-Cannabidiol	3 and 6	2-(6-isopropenyl-3-methyl-1-cyclohexen-1-yl)-5-pentyl-1,3-benzenediol	Δ2-Cannabidiol	1 and 4	4	No	Unscheduled
Δ6-Cannabidiol	3	2-(6-isopropenyl-3-methyl-6-cyclohexen-1-yl)-5-pentyl-1,3-benzenediol	Δ3-Cannabidiol	1	2	No	Unscheduled

In the typical operating temperature range of e-cigarettes (250–400 °C (482–752 °F)), 25–52% of CBD is transformed into other chemical substances: Δ9-THC, Δ8-THC, cannabinol and cannabichromene as predominant pyrolysates. From a chemical point of view, CBD in e-cigarettes can be considered a precursor of THC.^[28]

Numerous synthetic derivatives of CBD are known, and have been researched for generally similar applications as CBD itself.^[85]

Efforts to isolate the active ingredients in cannabis were made in the 19th century.^[86] Cannabidiol was studied in 1940 from Minnesota wild hemp^[86] and Egyptian Cannabis indica resin.^[87][88] The chemical formula of CBD was proposed from a method for isolating it from wild hemp.^[86] Its structure and stereochemistry were determined in 1963.^[89]

Selective breeding of cannabis plants has expanded and diversified as commercial and therapeutic markets develop. Some growers in the US succeeded in lowering the proportion of CBD-to-THC to accommodate customers who preferred varietals that were more mind-altering due to the higher THC and lower CBD content.^[90] In the US, hemp is classified by the federal government as cannabis containing no more than 0.3% THC by dry weight. This classification was established in the 2018 Farm Bill and was refined to include hemp-sourced extracts, cannabinoids, and derivatives in the definition of hemp.^[91]

Cannabidiol is the generic name of the drug and its INNTooltip International Nonproprietary Name.^[92]

Food and beverage products containing cannabidiol were widely marketed in the United States as early as 2017.^[93] Hemp seed ingredients which do not naturally contain THC or CBD (but which may be contaminated with trace amounts on the outside during harvesting) were declared by the US Food and Drug Administration as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) in December 2018. CBD itself has not been declared GRAS, and under US federal law is illegal to sell as a food, dietary supplement, or animal feed.^[53] State laws vary considerably as non-medical cannabis and derived products have been legalized in various jurisdictions.^[94] Despite once having a promising market, the industry for CBD stalled out during the COVID-19 pandemic beginning in 2020, and, by 2024, it collapsed due to withdrawal of investors, the absence of a FDA ruling on efficacy and safety, inconsistent state-by-state legislation, and consumer ambivalence.^[94]

Similar to energy drinks and protein bars which may contain vitamin or herbal additives, food and beverage items can be infused with CBD as an alternative means of ingesting the substance.^[94] In the United States, numerous products are marketed as containing CBD, but in reality contain little or none.^[53][95] Some companies marketing CBD-infused food products with claims that are similar to the effects of prescription drugs have received warning letters from the FDA for making unsubstantiated health claims.^[53][96] In February 2019, the New York City Department of Health announced plans to fine restaurants that sell food or drinks containing CBD, beginning in October 2019.^[97]

Studies conducted by the FDA from 2014 through 2019 have determined that a majority of CBD products are not accurately labeled with the amount of CBD they contain.^[98] For example, a 2017 analysis of cannabidiol content in oil, tincture, or liquid vape products purchased online in the United States showed that 69% were mislabeled, with 43% having higher and 26% having lower content than stated on product labels.^[99][56] In 2020, the FDA conducted a study of 147 CBD products and found that half contained THC.^[98][100]

From 2015 to November 2022, the FDA issued dozens of warning letters to American manufacturers of CBD products for false advertising and illegal interstate marketing of CBD as an unapproved drug to treat diseases, such as cancer, osteoarthritis, symptoms of opioid withdrawal, Alzheimer's disease, and pet disorders.^[57] Chemical analysis of CBD products found that many did not contain the levels of CBD claimed in advertising.^[57]

In December 2020, the Federal Trade Commission initiated a law enforcement crackdown on American companies marketing CBD products as unapproved drugs.^[101][102] The warning also applied to hemp CBD capsules and oil that were being marketed illegally while not adhering to the federal definition of a dietary supplement.^[102]

Cannabidiol has been used by professional and amateur athletes across disciplines and countries, with the World Anti-Doping Agency removing CBD from its banned substances list. The United States Anti-Doping Agency and United Kingdom-Anti-Doping Agency do not have anti-CBD policies, with the latter stating that, "CBD is not currently listed on the World Anti-Doping Agency Prohibited List. As a result, it is permitted to use in sport, though the intended benefits are unclear and not backed by clinical evidence. All other cannabinoids (including but not limited to cannabis, hashish, marijuana, and THC) are prohibited in-competition. The intention of the regulations is to prohibit cannabinoids that activate the same receptors in the brain as activated by THC."^[103][104]

In 2019, the cannabis manufacturer Canopy Growth acquired majority ownership of BioSteel Sports Nutrition, which is developing CBD products under endorsement by numerous professional athletes.^[105] The National Hockey League Alumni Association began a project with Canopy Growth to determine if CBD or other cannabis products might improve neurological symptoms and quality of life in head-injured players.^[105] Some sports leagues have announced sponsorships with CBD companies, such as Major League Baseball (Charlotte's Web) and Ultimate Fighting Championship (Love Hemp).^[106][107] Numerous professional athletes use CBD, primarily for treating pain.^{[105][108][109]}

Prescription medicine (Schedule 4) for therapeutic use containing two percent (2.0%) or less of other cannabinoids commonly found in cannabis (such as ∆⁹-THC). A Schedule 4 drug under the SUSMP is a Prescription Only Medicine, or Prescription Animal Remedy – Substances, the use or supply of which should be by or on the order of persons permitted by state or territory legislation to prescribe and should be available from a pharmacist on prescription.^[110]

In June 2020, the Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) published a consultation on a proposal to pave the way to make "low dose" CBD available to consumer/patients via pharmacists only through moving products from Schedule 4 to 3.^[111] Any products sold would need to have their safety, quality and efficacy pre-assessed by the TGA and be formally approved for sale (details to be outlined by TGA). They would be made available to over 18s only, with the maximum daily dose of 60 mg/day, up to 2% THC finished product allowed, 30-day maximum supply, plant-derived or synthetic. This proposal is based on an initial literature review on the safety of low dose CBD published by the TGA in April 2020.^[112] Epidyolex was approved for the adjunctive therapy of seizures associated with Lennox–Gastaut syndrome or with Dravet syndrome in September 2020.^[2]

In 2020, Bulgaria became the first country in the European Union to allow retail sales of food products and supplements containing CBD, despite the ongoing discussion within the EU about the classification of CBD as a novel food.^[113] However, there exists a legal gap because of the lack of a legally-permissible minimum amount of THC in the products containing cannabinoids.^[114]

In October 2018, cannabidiol became legal for recreational and medical use by the federal Cannabis Act.^{[115][116][117]} As of August 2019^[update], CBD products in Canada could only be sold by authorized retailers or federally licensed medical companies, limiting their access to the general public.^[118] Nonetheless, with online delivery services and over 2,600 authorized cannabis retail stores as of October 2021^[update], accessibility has steadily increased over time.^[119][120] The Canadian government states that CBD products "are subject to all of the rules and requirements that apply to cannabis under the Cannabis Act and its regulations."^[115] It requires "a processing licence to manufacture products containing CBD for sale, no matter what the source of the CBD is, and that CBD and products containing CBD, such as cannabis oil, may only be sold by an authorized retailer or licensed seller of medical CBD."^[115] Edible CBD products were scheduled to be permitted for sale in Canada on October 17, 2019, for human consumption.^[115]

As of August 2020^[update], it was still illegal to carry cannabis and cannabis-derived products (including products containing CBD) across the Canadian border. If one carries any amount of cannabis for any purpose (including medical), it needs to be declared to the Canada Border Services Agency. Not declaring it is a serious criminal offence.^[121]

As of May 2023, the State Agricultural and Food Inspection of the Czech Republic is putting together broad regulations regarding a ban on CBD products.^[122] They will make it illegal to sell products containing cannabidiol and other cannabinoids derived from hemp, as a result of EU Novel Food Regulation. In case of Czech Republic, European Industrial Hemp Association has submitted an official request to the Czech Republic to recognize natural hemp extracts with cannabinoids as traditional food.^[123]

In 2019, the European Commission announced that CBD and other cannabinoids would be classified as "novel foods",^[124] meaning that CBD products would require authorization under the EU Novel Food Regulation stating that because "this product was not used as a food or food ingredient before May 15, 1997, before it may be placed on the market in the EU as a food or food ingredient, a safety assessment under the Novel Food Regulation is required."^[125] The recommendation – applying to CBD extracts, synthesized CBD, and all CBD products, including CBD oil – was scheduled for a final ruling by the European Commission in March 2019.^[124] If approved, manufacturers of CBD products would be required to conduct safety tests and prove safe consumption, indicating that CBD products would not be eligible for legal commerce until at least 2021.^[124] In December 2020, the European Commission concluded that CBD should not be considered as drug and can be qualified as food.^[126]

Cannabidiol is listed in the EU Cosmetics Ingredient Database (CosIng).^[127] However, the listing of an ingredient, assigned with an INCI name, in CosIng does not mean it is to be used in cosmetic products or is approved for such use.^[127]

Several industrial hemp varieties can be legally cultivated in Western Europe. A variety such as "Fedora 17" has a cannabinoid profile consistently around 1%, with THC less than 0.3%.^[128]

In 2022, the HKSAR Government proposed a ban on any use of cannabidiol (including for academic research and by medical professionals) within the Hong Kong territory, making Hong Kong the first jurisdiction in the world to have complete prohibition of cannabidiol, starting from February 1, 2023,^[129] in part due to the possible presence of THC which is illegal in Hong Kong, according to a research subsidized by the Hong Kong SAR Government.^{[130][131][132]}

In 2017, the New Zealand government made changes to the regulations so that restrictions would be removed, which meant a doctor was able to prescribe cannabidiol to patients.^[133]

The passing of the Misuse of Drugs (Medicinal Cannabis) Amendment Act in December 2018 means cannabidiol is no longer a controlled drug in New Zealand, but is a prescription medicine under the Medicines Act, with the restriction that "the tetrahydrocannabinols (THCs) and specified substances within the product must not exceed 2 percent of the total CBD, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and other specified substances."^[134]

According to a document received in response to an appeal to the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation, measures of state control in the Russian Federation regarding CBD have not been established. However, there is also a response from the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation indicating that CBD can be considered as an isomer of restricted THC. The "isomer" argument is nonetheless vague, as progesterone, which is freely sold in pharmacies, is also an isomer of THC, all three being C
₂₁H
₃₀O
₂.^[135] On February 17, 2020, the deputy of the Moscow City Duma Darya Besedina sent an official request to the Prime Minister of the Russian Federation Mikhail Mishustin with a request to eliminate that legal ambiguity by publishing official explanations and, if necessary, making required changes in the corresponding government decree.^[136]

Singapore allows medical cannabis on a case-by-case basis, usually as a last resort drug. Each case is evaluated by the government, and largely comes in the form of Cannabidiol. However, the country is flexible to what is required for patient treatment, despite having some of the strictest drug laws in the world.

Cannabidiol is classified as a medical product in Sweden.^[137] However, in July 2019, Supreme Court of Sweden ruled that CBD oil with any concentration of THC falls under the narcotic control laws.^[138]

While THC remains illegal, cannabidiol is not subject to the Swiss Narcotic Acts because it does not produce a comparable psychoactive effect.^[139] Cannabis products containing less than 1% THC can be sold and purchased legally.^[140][141]

On April 7, 2021, the Ukrainian government legalised use of isolated cannabidiol. Additionally, it approved Nabiximols, a cannabidiol-containing drug, for medical use.^[142]

Cannabidiol, in an oral-mucosal spray formulation combined with delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, is a product available by prescription for the relief of severe spasticity due to multiple sclerosis (where other anti-spasmodics have not been effective) in the United Kingdom.^[143]

Until 2017, products containing cannabidiol marketed for medical purposes were classed as medicines by the UK regulatory body, the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA), and could not be marketed without regulatory approval for the medical claims.^[144][145] As of 2018^[update], cannabis oil is legal to possess, buy, and sell in the UK, providing the product does not contain more than 1 milligram of THC and is not advertised as providing a medicinal benefit.^[7] Individual police officers and others who are ill-informed of the exact legislature pertaining to cannabidiol, however, may erroneously consider it of dubious legality, reflecting lack of awareness.^[146]

In January 2019, the UK Food Standards Agency indicated it would regard CBD products, including CBD oil, as a novel food having no history of use before May 1997, and stated that such products must have authorisation and proven safety before being marketed.^[124][147] The deadline for companies with existing products to submit a full and validated novel foods application with the FSA was March 31, 2021; failure to do so before this date would exclude those companies from selling CBD.^[148] New products containing CBD after this deadline would require a fully approved application.^[149]

In February 2020, the UK FSA advised vulnerable people, such as pregnant women, breastfeeding mothers, and those already taking medication for other medical concerns not to take CBD. The FSA further recommended that healthy adults should not consume more than 70 mg CBD per day.^[148]

Cannabidiol is scheduled under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs as cannabis. International Narcotics Control Board reminds Member States that, at the reconvened sixty-third session of the Commission on Narcotic Drugs, in December 2020, the States members of the Commission rejected the recommendation of WHO that a footnote be added to the entry for cannabis and cannabis resin in Schedule I of the 1961 Convention as amended to exempt from international control preparations containing predominantly CBD and not more than 0.2 per cent of delta-9-THC.^[150]

As of 2023^[update], cannabidiol extracted from marijuana remains a Schedule I Controlled Substance,^{[53][151][152]} and is not approved as a prescription drug or dietary supplement or allowed for interstate commerce in the United States.^[52] CBD derived from hemp (with 0.3% THC or lower) is legal to sell as a cosmetics ingredient or for other purposes not regulated by the FDA, but cannot be sold under federal law as an ingredient in food, dietary supplement, or animal feed.^[53][153] It is a common misconception that the legal ability to sell hemp (which may contain CBD), and hemp extracts and derivatives (including CBD), makes CBD legal for sale as a supplement or medicine.^[153][154]

In September 2018, the GW Pharmaceuticals drug Epidiolex was placed in Schedule V of the Controlled Substances Act by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA),^[155] following its approval by the FDA for rare types of childhood epilepsy.^[4] It was then removed from the Controlled Substances Act by the DEA in April 2020.^[156] Epidiolex is available for prescription use in all 50 states.^[157]

In 2013, a CNN program that featured Charlotte's Web cannabis brought increased attention to the use of CBD for the treatment of seizure disorders in children.^[158][159] A number of states passed laws over the next few years to allow the use of low-THC, high-CBD cannabis oil in such situations.^[160] These states were in addition to the states that had already legalized cannabis for medical or recreational use.^[160] Many states further relaxed their laws regarding CBD following the passage of the 2018 Farm Bill.^[161][162]

The 2014 Farm Bill^[163] legalized the sale of "non-viable hemp material" grown within states participating in the Hemp Pilot Program which defined hemp as cannabis containing less than 0.3% of THC.^[164] The 2018 Farm Bill removed the hemp plant and all "derivatives, extracts, cannabinoids, isomers, acids, salts, and salts of isomers, whether growing or not, with a delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol concentration of not more than 0.3 percent on a dry weight basis," including CBD, from the Controlled Substances Act, making them legal to manufacture in the United States.^{[29][165][166]} The FDA retains regulatory authority over hemp-derived CBD,^[154] while the DEA is not involved in the regulation of legally-compliant hemp and hemp products.^[167] The 2018 Farm Bill requires that research and development of CBD for a therapeutic purpose would have to be conducted under notification and reporting to the FDA.^[154][54]

The number of research projects and scientific publications on cannabidiol and other cannabinoids in pets surged in the late 2010s; nonetheless, as of December 2020^[update], there were no hemp-derived, cannabinoid-rich registered veterinary medicinal products in any of the major regions (see #Legal status).

In the US and other territories there are, however, numerous veterinary nutraceutical products available over the counter (OTC). The lack of clarity in the regulations governing veterinary hemp food supplements allows for products of questionable quality to flood the market,^[168][169] which may pose a risk to the wellbeing of pets and owners.

To understand better the benefits of CBD and associated compounds for the quality of life of animals, companies specialized in CBD products for animals have been funding research projects.^{[170][171][172][173]}

CBD's ability to help regulate the endocannabinoid system^{[174][175][176]} and reduce the release of excitatory neurotransmitters could result in a retrograde inhibitory signal that lessens chronic pain responses. Studies in dogs with chronic pain associated with osteoarthritis showed an increase in level of activity in animals receiving CBD-rich food supplements.^{[177][178][179][171]}

From the results seen in humans with drugs such as Epidiolex and Sativex in scientific studies and reviews,^[180] it could be expected that CBD-based products would be helpful to manage seizures in dogs. However, despite the numerous case reports presented by veterinary neurologists supporting the benefits of CBD as adjunctive therapy, as of December 2020^[update], published controlled studies have not shown a statistically significant decrease in the number of seizures across the groups receiving CBD.^[170][172]

The oral bioavailability of CBD varies greatly across species and it is linked to the presentation and the time of administration.^{[181][173][182]} A 24-hour kinetic examination in dogs showed that the absorption of the cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) does occur, and that this molecule is absorbed least twice as well as CBD post oral ingestion.^{[181][173][183]}

It was found that the major metabolites of CBD in humans (7-OH-CBD and 7-COOH-CBD) are not prevalent in dogs, while 6-OH-CBD was found to be the primary metabolite in dogs receiving a CBD-enriched cannabis-derived herbal extract,^[184] suggesting that canine and human CBD metabolic route might be somewhat different.^[182]

As of 2022^[update], little evidence exists for cannabidiol reducing psychiatric disorders in humans.^{[17][18][19][36][185]}

In the United States, federal illegality complicates conducting historic research on CBD.^[186]

 

The earliest known traces of wine are from Georgia (c. 6000 BCE),^[3][2] Persia (c. 5000 BCE),^[8][9] Armenia (c. 4100 BCE),^[10] and Sicily (c. 4000 BCE).^[11] Wine reached the Mediterranean Basin in the early Bronze Age and was consumed and celebrated by ancient civilizations like ancient Greece and Rome. Throughout history, wine has been consumed for its intoxicating effects.^[12]

The earliest archaeological and archaeobotanical evidence for grape wine and viniculture, dating to 6000–5800 BCE was found on the territory of modern Georgia.^[13][14] Both archaeological and genetic evidence suggest that the earliest production of wine outside of Georgia was relatively later, likely having taken place elsewhere in the Southern Caucasus (which encompasses Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan), or the West Asian region between Eastern Turkey, and northern Iran.^[15][16] The earliest known winery, from 4100 BCE, is the Areni-1 winery in Armenia.^[10][17]

A 2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed with rice to produce fermented drinks in ancient China in the early years of the seventh millennium BCE. Pottery jars from the Neolithic site of Jiahu, Henan, contained traces of tartaric acid and other organic compounds commonly found in wine. However, other fruits indigenous to the region, such as hawthorn, cannot be ruled out.^[18][19] If these drinks, which seem to be the precursors of rice wine, included grapes rather than other fruits, they would have been any of the several dozen indigenous wild species in China, rather than Vitis vinifera, which was introduced 6000 years later.^{[18][20][21][22][3]}

In 2020, a 2,600-year-old well-preserved Phoenician wine press was excavated at Tell el-Burak, south of Sidon in Lebanon, probably devoted to making wine for trading in their colonies.^[23] The spread of wine culture westwards was most probably due to the Phoenicians, who spread outward from a base of city-states along the Mediterranean coast centered around modern day Lebanon (as well as including small parts of Israel/Palestine and coastal Syria);^[24] however, the Nuragic culture in Sardinia already had a custom of consuming wine before the arrival of the Phoenicians.^[25][26] The wines of Byblos were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean. Evidence for this includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BCE, found with their cargoes of wine still intact.^[27] As the first great traders in wine (cherem), the Phoenicians seem to have protected it from oxidation with a layer of olive oil, followed by a seal of pinewood and resin, similar to retsina.

The earliest remains of Apadana Palace in Persepolis dating back to 515 BCE include carvings depicting soldiers from the Achaemenid Empire subject nations bringing gifts to the Achaemenid king, among them Armenians bringing their famous wine.

Literary references to wine are abundant in Homer (8th century BCE, but possibly relating earlier compositions), Alkman (7th century BCE), and others. In ancient Egypt, six of 36 wine amphoras were found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun bearing the name "Kha'y", a royal chief vintner. Five of these amphoras were designated as originating from the king's personal estate, with the sixth from the estate of the royal house of Aten.^[28] Traces of wine have also been found in central Asian Xinjiang in modern-day China, dating from the second and first millennia BCE.^[29]

The first known mention of grape-based wines in India is from the late 4th-century BCE writings of Chanakya, the chief minister of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. In his writings, Chanakya condemns the use of alcohol while chronicling the emperor and his court's frequent indulgence of a style of wine known as madhu.^[30]

The ancient Romans planted vineyards near garrison towns so wine could be produced locally rather than shipped over long distances. Some of these areas are now world-renowned for wine production.^[31] The Romans discovered that burning sulfur candles inside empty wine vessels kept them fresh and free from a vinegar smell, due to the antioxidant effects of sulfur dioxide.^[32] In medieval Europe, the Roman Catholic Church supported wine because the clergy required it for the Mass. Monks in France made wine for years, aging it in caves.^[33] An old English recipe that survived in various forms until the 19th century calls for refining white wine from bastard—bad or tainted bastardo wine.^[34]

Later, the descendants of the sacramental wine were refined for a more palatable taste. This gave rise to modern viticulture in French wine, Italian wine, Spanish wine, and these wine grape traditions were brought into New World wine. For example, Mission grapes were brought by Franciscan monks to New Mexico in 1628 beginning the New Mexico wine heritage, these grapes were also brought to California which started the California wine industry. Thanks to Spanish wine culture, these two regions eventually evolved into the oldest and largest producers, respectively, of wine of the United States.^[35][36][37] Viking sagas earlier mentioned a fantastic land filled with wild grapes and high-quality wine called precisely Vinland.^{[38][unreliable source?]} Prior to the Spanish establishing their American wine grape traditions in California and New Mexico, both France and Britain had unsuccessfully attempted to establish grapevines in Florida and Virginia respectively.^[39]

In East Asia, the first modern wine industry was Japanese wine, developed in 1874 after grapevines were brought back from Europe.^[40]

The English word "wine" comes from the Proto-Germanic *winam, an early borrowing from the Latin vinum, Georgian ღვინო (ghvee-no), "wine", itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European stem *uoin-a- (cf. Armenian: Õ£Õ«Õ¶Õ«, gini; Ancient Greek: οἶνος oinos; Hittite: uiian(a)-).^[41] The earliest attested terms referring to wine^{[citation needed]} are the Mycenaean Greek 𐀕𐀶𐀺𐄀𐀚𐀺 me-tu-wo ne-wo (*μέθυϝος νέϝῳ),^[42] meaning "in (the month)" or "(festival) of the new wine", and 𐀺𐀜𐀷𐀴𐀯 wo-no-wa-ti-si,^[43] meaning "wine garden", written in Linear B inscriptions.^[44][45]

The ultimate Indo-European origin of the word is the subject of some continued debate. Some scholars have noted the similarities between the words for wine in Indo-European languages (e.g. Armenian gini, Latin vinum, Ancient Greek οἶνος, Russian вино [vʲɪˈno]), Kartvelian (e.g. Georgian ღვინო [ˈɣvino]), and Semitic (*wayn; Hebrew יין [jajin]), pointing to the possibility of a common origin of the word denoting "wine" in these language families.^[46] The Georgian word goes back to Proto-Kartvelian *É£wino-,^[47] which is either a borrowing from Proto-Indo-European^[47][48] or the lexeme was specifically borrowed from Proto-Armenian *ɣʷeinyo-, whence Armenian gini.^{[49][50][51][52][47][verification needed]} An alternative hypothesis by Fähnrich supposes *É£wino-, a native Kartvelian word derived from the verbal root *É£un- ('to bend').^[53][54] All these theories place the origin of the word in the same geographical location, South Caucasus, that has been established based on archeological and biomolecular studies as the origin of viticulture.^{[citation needed]}

Wine is made in many ways from different fruits, with grapes being the most common.

The type of grape used and the amount of skin contact while the juice is being extracted determines the color and general style of the wine. The color has no relation to a wine's sweetness—all may be made sweet or dry.

Types of wine from grapes

	Long contact with grape skins	Short contact with grape skins	No contact with grape skins
Red grapes	Red wine	Rosé wine	White wine
White grapes	Orange wine

Red wine gains its color and flavor (notably, tannins) from the grape skin, by allowing the grapes to soak in the extracted juice. Red wine is made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from violet, typical of young wines, through red for mature wines, to brown for older red wines. The juice from most red grapes is actually greenish-white; the red color comes from anthocyanins present in the skin of the grape. A notable exception is the family of rare teinturier varieties, which actually have red flesh and produce red juice.

To make white wine, grapes are pressed quickly with the juice immediately drained away from the grape skins. The grapes used are typically white grape varieties, though red grapes may be used if the winemaker is careful not to let the skin stain the wort during the separation of the pulp-juice. For example, pinot noir (a red grape) is commonly used in champagne.

Dry (low sugar) white wine is the most common, derived from the complete fermentation of the juice, however sweet white wines such as Moscato d'Asti are also made.

A rosé wine gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. It may be the oldest known type of wine, as it is the most straightforward to make with the skin contact method. The color can range from a pale orange to a vivid near-purple, depending on the varietals used and wine-making techniques.

There are three primary ways to produce rosé wine: Skin contact (allowing dark grape skins to stain the wort), saignée (removing juice from the must early in fermentation and continuing fermentation of the juice separately), and blending of a red and white wine (uncommon and discouraged in most wine growing regions). Rosé wines have a wide range of sweetness levels from dry Provençal rosé to sweet White Zinfandels and blushes. Rosé wines are made from a wide variety of grapes all over the world.^[55][56]

Sometimes called amber wines, these are wines made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to soak during pressing, similar to red and rosé wine production. They are notably tannic, and usually made dry.^[57]

These are effervescent wines, made in any of the above styles (i.e, orange, red, rosé, white). They must undergo secondary fermentation to create carbon dioxide, which creates the bubbles.

Two common methods of accomplishing this are the traditional method, used for Cava, Champagne, and more expensive sparkling wines, and the Charmat method, used for Prosecco, Asti, and less expensive wines. A hybrid transfer method is also used, yielding intermediate results, and simple addition of carbon dioxide is used in the cheapest of wines.^[58]

The bottles used for sparkling wine must be thick to withstand the pressure of the gas behind the cork, which can be up to 6 standard atmospheres (88 psi).^[59]

This refers to sweet wines that have a high level of sugar remaining after fermentation. There are various ways of increasing the amount of sugar in a wine, yielding products with different strengths and names. Icewine, Port, Sauternes, Tokaji Aszú, Trockenbeerenauslese, and Vin Santo are some examples.

Wines from other fruits, such as apples and berries, are usually named after the fruit from which they are produced, and combined with the word "wine" (for example, apple wine and elderberry wine) and are generically called fruit wine or country wine (similar to French term vin de pays). Other than the grape varieties traditionally used for wine-making, most fruits naturally lack either sufficient fermentable sugars, proper amount of acidity, yeast amounts needed to promote or maintain fermentation, or a combination of these three materials. This is probably one of the main reasons why wine derived from grapes has historically been more prevalent by far than other types, and why specific types of fruit wines have generally been confined to the regions in which the fruits were native or introduced for other reasons.^{[citation needed]}

Mead, also called honey wine, is created by fermenting honey with water, sometimes with various fruits, spices, grains, or hops. As long as the primary substance fermented is honey, the drink is considered mead.^[60] Mead was produced in ancient history throughout Europe, Africa and Asia,^[61] and was known in Europe before grape wine.^[62]

Other drinks called "wine", such as barley wine and rice wine (e.g. sake, huangjiu and cheongju), are made from starch-based materials and resemble beer more than traditional wine, while ginger wine is fortified with brandy. In these latter cases, the term "wine" refers to the similarity in alcohol content rather than to the production process.^[63] The commercial use of the English word "wine" (and its equivalent in other languages) is protected by law in many jurisdictions.^[64]

Wine is usually made from one or more varieties of the European species Vitis vinifera,^[65] such as Pinot noir, Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Gamay and Merlot. When one of these varieties is used as the predominant grape (usually defined by law as a minimum of 75% to 85%), the result is a "varietal" as opposed to a "blended" wine. Blended wines are not necessarily inferior to varietal wines, rather they are a different style of wine-making.^[66]

Wine can also be made from other species of grape or from hybrids, created by the genetic crossing of two species. V. labrusca (of which the Concord grape is a cultivar), V. aestivalis, V. rupestris, V. rotundifolia and V. riparia are native North American grapes usually grown to eat fresh or for grape juice, jam, or jelly, and only occasionally made into wine.^{[citation needed]}

Hybridization is different from grafting. Most of the world's vineyards are planted with European Vitis vinifera vines that have been grafted onto North American species' rootstock, a common practice due to their resistance to phylloxera, a root louse that eventually kills the vine.^[65] In the late 19th century, most of Europe's vineyards (excluding some of the driest in the south) were devastated by the infestation, leading to widespread vine deaths and eventual replanting. Grafting is done in every wine-producing region in the world except in Argentina and the Canary Islands – the only places not yet exposed to the insect.^{[citation needed]}

In the context of wine production, terroir is a concept that encompasses the varieties of grapes used, elevation and shape of the vineyard, type and chemistry of soil, climate and seasonal conditions, and the local yeast cultures.^[67] The range of possible combinations of these factors can result in great differences among wines, influencing the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes as well. Many wineries use growing and production methods that preserve or accentuate the aroma and taste influences of their unique terroir.^[68] However, flavor differences are less desirable for producers of mass-market table wine or other cheaper wines, where consistency takes precedence. Such producers try to minimize differences in sources of grapes through production techniques such as micro-oxygenation, tannin filtration, cross-flow filtration, thin-film evaporation, and spinning cones.^[69]

About 700 grapes go into one bottle of wine, approximately 2.6 pounds.^[70]

Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between 30 and 50 degrees latitude north and south of the equator. The world's southernmost vineyards are in the Central Otago region of New Zealand's South Island near the 45th parallel south,^[71] and the northernmost are in Flen, Sweden, just north of the 59th parallel north.^[72]

The UK was the world's largest importer of wine in 2007.^[73]

2023 wine production estimates

Rank	Country	Production (million hecolitres)[74]	Production (% of world)[74]	Exports (million hecolitres)[75]	Export market share (% of value in US$)[76]
1	France	48.0	20.2%	12.7	33.3%
2	Italy	38.3	16.1%	21.4	21.6%
3	Spain	28.3	11.9%	20.8	8.2%
4	United States	24.3*	10.2%*	2.1	3.2%
5	Chile	11.0	4.6%	6.8	3.9%
6	Australia	9.6	4.1%	6.2	3.6%
7	South Africa	9.3	3.9%	3.5	1.6%
8	Argentina	8.8	3.7%	2.0	1.7%
9	Germany	8.6	3.6%	3.3	2.9%
10	Portugal	7.5	3.2%	3.2	2.6%
World		237.3			* Estimated

Regulations govern the classification and sale of wine in many regions of the world. European wines tend to be classified by region (e.g. Bordeaux, Rioja and Chianti), while non-European wines are most often classified by grape (e.g. Pinot noir and Merlot). Market recognition of particular regions has recently been leading to their increased prominence on non-European wine labels. Examples of recognized non-European locales include Napa Valley, Santa Clara Valley, Sonoma Valley, Anderson Valley, and Mendocino County in California; Willamette Valley and Rogue Valley in Oregon; Columbia Valley in Washington; Barossa Valley in South Australia; Hunter Valley in New South Wales; Luján de Cuyo in Argentina; Vale dos Vinhedos in Brazil; Hawke's Bay and Marlborough in New Zealand; Central Valley in Chile; and in Canada, the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia, and the Niagara Peninsula and Essex County regions of Ontario are the three largest producers.

Some blended wine names are marketing terms whose use is governed by trademark law rather than by specific wine laws. For example, Meritage is generally a Bordeaux-style blend of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, but may also include Cabernet Franc, Petit Verdot, and Malbec. Commercial use of the term Meritage is allowed only via licensing agreements with the Meritage Association.

France has various appellation systems based on the concept of terroir, with classifications ranging from Vin de Table ("table wine") at the bottom, through Vin de Pays and Appellation d'Origine Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure (AOVDQS), up to Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC) or similar, depending on the region.^[77][78] Portugal has developed a system resembling that of France and, in fact, pioneered this concept in 1756 with a royal charter creating the Demarcated Douro Region and regulating the production and trade of wine.^[79] Germany created a similar scheme in 2002, although it has not yet achieved the authority of the other countries' classification systems.^[80][81] Spain, Greece and Italy have classifications based on a dual system of region of origin and product quality.^[82]

New World wines—those made outside the traditional wine regions of Europe—are usually classified by grape rather than by terroir or region of origin, although there have been unofficial attempts to classify them by quality.^{[83][84][needs update]}

According to Canadian Food and Drug Regulations, wine in Canada is an alcoholic drink that is produced by the complete or partial alcoholic fermentation of fresh grapes, grape must, products derived solely from fresh grapes, or any combination of them. There are many materials added during the course of the manufacture, such as yeast, concentrated grape juice, dextrose, fructose, glucose or glucose solids, invert sugar, sugar, or aqueous solutions. Calcium sulphate in such quantity that the content of soluble sulphates in the finished wine shall not exceed 0.2 percent weight by volume calculated as potassium sulphate. Calcium carbonate in such quantity that the content of tartaric acid in the finished wine shall not be less than 0.15 percent weight by volume. Also, sulphurous acid, including salts thereof, in such quantity that its content in the finished wine shall not exceed 70 parts per million in the free state, or 350 parts per million in the combined state, calculated as sulphur dioxide. Caramel, amylase and pectinase at a maximum level of use consistent with good manufacturing practice. Prior to final filtration may be treated with a strongly acid cation exchange resin in the sodium ion form, or a weakly basic anion exchange resin in the hydroxyl ion form.^[85]

For wines produced in the European Union, if a bottle of wine indicates a vintage, then at least 85% of the grapes must have been harvested in that year.^[86] In the United States, for a wine to be vintage-dated and labeled with a country of origin or American Viticultural Area (AVA; e.g., Sonoma Valley), 95% of its volume must be from grapes harvested in that year.^[87] If a wine is not labeled with a country of origin or AVA the percentage requirement is lowered to 85%.^[87]

Vintage wines are generally bottled in a single batch so that each bottle will have a similar taste. Climate's impact on the character of a wine can be significant enough to cause different vintages from the same vineyard to vary dramatically in flavor and quality.^{[88][unreliable source?]} Thus, vintage wines are produced to be individually characteristic of the particular vintage and to serve as the flagship wines of the producer. Superior vintages from reputable producers and regions will often command much higher prices than their average ones. Some vintage wines (e.g. Brunello), are only made in better-than-average years.

For consistency, non-vintage wines can be blended from more than one vintage, which helps wine-makers sustain a reliable market image and maintain sales even in bad years.^[89][90] One recent study suggests that for the average wine drinker, the vintage year may not be as significant for perceived quality as had been thought, although wine connoisseurs continue to place great importance on it.^[91]

Most wines are sold in glass bottles and sealed with corks^{[citation needed]} (50% of which come from Portugal).^[92] An increasing number of wine producers have been using alternative closures such as screwcaps and synthetic plastic "corks". Although alternative closures are less expensive and reduce the risk of cork taint, they have been blamed for such problems as excessive reduction.^[93]

Some wines are packaged in thick plastic bags within corrugated fiberboard boxes, and are called "box wines", or "cask wine". Tucked inside the package is a tap affixed to the bag in box, or bladder, that is later extended by the consumer for serving the contents. Box wine can stay acceptably fresh for up to a month after opening because the bladder collapses as wine is dispensed, limiting contact with air and, thus, slowing the rate of oxidation. In contrast, bottled wine oxidizes more rapidly after opening because of the increasing ratio of air to wine as the contents are dispensed; it can degrade considerably in a few days. Canned wine is one of the fastest-growing forms of alternative wine packaging on the market.^[94]

Environmental considerations of wine packaging reveal the benefits and drawbacks of both bottled and box wines. The glass used to make bottles is a nontoxic, naturally occurring substance that is completely recyclable, whereas the plastics used for box-wine containers are typically much less environmentally friendly. However, wine-bottle manufacturers have been cited for Clean Air Act violations. A New York Times editorial suggested that box wine, being lighter in package weight, has a reduced carbon footprint from its distribution; however, box-wine plastics, even though possibly recyclable, can be more labor-intensive (and therefore expensive) to process than glass bottles. In addition, while a wine box is recyclable, its plastic bladder most likely is not.^[95] Some people are drawn to canned wine due to its portability and recyclable packaging.^[94]

Some wine is sold in stainless steel kegs and is referred to as wine on tap.

Incidents of fraud, such as mislabeling the origin or quality of wines, have resulted in regulations on labeling. "Wine scandals" that have received media attention include:

• The 1985 diethylene glycol wine scandal, in which diethylene glycol was used as a sweetener in some Austrian wines.
• In 1986, methanol (a toxic type of alcohol) was used to alter certain wines manufactured in Italy.
• In 2008, some Italian wines were found to include sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid.^[96]
• In 2010, some Chinese red wines were found to be adulterated, and as a consequence China's Hebei province shut down nearly 30 wineries.^{[97][98][99][100]}

Wine tasting is the sensory examination and evaluation of wine. Wines contain many chemical compounds similar or identical to those in fruits, vegetables, and spices. The sweetness of wine is determined by the amount of residual sugar in the wine after fermentation, relative to the acidity present in the wine. Dry wine, for example, has only a small amount of residual sugar. Some wine labels suggest opening the bottle and letting the wine "breathe" for a couple of hours before serving, while others recommend drinking it immediately. Decanting (the act of pouring a wine into a special container just for breathing) is a controversial subject among wine enthusiasts. In addition to aeration, decanting with a filter allows the removal of bitter sediments that may have formed in the wine. Sediment is more common in older bottles, but aeration may benefit younger wines.^[101]

During aeration, a younger wine's exposure to air often "relaxes" the drink, making it smoother and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Older wines generally fade (lose their character and flavor intensity) with extended aeration.^[102] Despite these general rules, breathing does not necessarily benefit all wines. Wine may be tasted as soon as the bottle is opened to determine how long it should be aerated, if at all.^{[103][better source needed]} When tasting wine, individual flavors may also be detected, due to the complex mix of organic molecules (e.g. esters and terpenes) that grape juice and wine can contain. Experienced tasters can distinguish between flavors characteristic of a specific grape and flavors that result from other factors in wine-making. Typical intentional flavor elements in wine—chocolate, vanilla, or coffee—are those imparted by aging in oak casks rather than the grape itself.^[104]

Vertical and horizontal tasting involves a range of vintages within the same grape and vineyard, or the latter in which there is one vintage from multiple vineyards. "Banana" flavors (isoamyl acetate) are the product of yeast metabolism, as are spoilage aromas such as "medicinal" or "Band-Aid" (4-ethylphenol), "spicy" or "smoky" (4-ethylguaiacol),^[105] and rotten egg (hydrogen sulfide).^[106] Some varieties can also exhibit a mineral flavor due to the presence of water-soluble salts as a result of limestone's presence in the vineyard's soil. Wine aroma comes from volatile compounds released into the air.^[107] Vaporization of these compounds can be accelerated by twirling the wine glass or serving at room temperature. Many drinkers prefer to chill red wines that are already highly aromatic, like Chinon and Beaujolais.^[108]

The ideal temperature for serving a particular wine is a matter of debate by wine enthusiasts and sommeliers, but some broad guidelines have emerged that will generally enhance the experience of tasting certain common wines. White wine should foster a sense of coolness, achieved by serving at "cellar temperature" (13 °C or 55 °F). Light red wines drunk young should also be brought to the table at this temperature, where they will quickly rise a few degrees. Red wines are generally perceived best when served chambré ("at room temperature"). However, this does not mean the temperature of the dining room—often around 21 °C (70 °F)—but rather the coolest room in the house and, therefore, always slightly cooler than the dining room itself. Pinot noir should be brought to the table for serving at 16 °C (61 °F) and will reach its full bouquet at 18 °C (64 °F). Cabernet Sauvignon, zinfandel, and Rhone varieties should be served at 18 °C (64 °F) and allowed to warm on the table to 21 °C (70 °F) for best aroma.^[109]

Outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands of dollars per bottle, though the broader term "fine wine" covers those typically retailing in excess of US$30–50.^[110] "Investment wines" are considered by some to be Veblen goods: those for which demand increases rather than decreases as their prices rise. Particular selections such as "Verticals", which span multiple vintages of a specific grape and vineyard, may be highly valued. The most notable was a Château d'Yquem 135-year vertical containing every vintage from 1860 to 2003 sold for $1.5 million. The most common wines purchased for investment include those from Bordeaux and Burgundy; cult wines from Europe and elsewhere; and vintage port. Characteristics of highly collectible wines include:

1. A proven track record of holding well over time
2. A drinking-window plateau (i.e., the period for maturity and approachability) that is many years long
3. A consensus among experts as to the quality of the wines
4. Rigorous production methods at every stage, including grape selection and appropriate barrel aging

Investment in fine wine has attracted those who take advantage of their victims' relative ignorance of this wine market sector.^[111] Such wine fraudsters often profit by charging excessively high prices for off-vintage or lower-status wines from well-known wine regions, while claiming that they are offering a sound investment unaffected by economic cycles. As with any investment, thorough research is essential to making an informed decision.

Wine consumption, 2011^[114]

Country	Liters per capita
France	8.14
Portugal	6.65
Italy	6.38
Croatia	5.80
Andorra	5.69
Switzerland	5.10
Slovenia	5.10
Hungary	4.94
Moldova	4.67
Argentina	4.62

Wine is a popular and important drink that accompanies and enhances a wide range of cuisines, from the simple and traditional stews to the most sophisticated and complex haute cuisines. Wine is often served with dinner. Sweet dessert wines may be served with the dessert course. In fine restaurants in Western countries, wine typically accompanies dinner. At a restaurant, patrons are helped to make good food-wine pairings by the restaurant's sommelier or wine waiter. Individuals dining at home may use wine guides to help make food–wine pairings. Wine is also drunk without the accompaniment of a meal in wine bars or with a selection of cheeses (at a wine and cheese party). Wines are also used as a theme for organizing various events such as festivals around the world; the city of Kuopio in North Savonia, Finland is known for its annual Kuopio Wine Festivals (Kuopion viinijuhlat).^[115]

Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as a drink, but as a flavor agent, primarily in stocks and braising, since its acidity lends balance to rich savoury or sweet dishes.^[116] Wine sauce is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient.^[117] Natural wines may exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, from below 9% to above 16% ABV, with most wines being in the 12.5–14.5% range.^[118] Fortified wines (usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.

Red table wine

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	355 kJ (85 kcal)
Carbohydrates	2.6 g
Sugars	0.6 g
Fat	0.0 g
Protein	0.1 g
Vitamins and minerals
Other constituents	Quantity
Alcohol (ethanol)	10.6 g
10.6 g alcohol is 13%vol. 100 g wine is approximately 100 ml (3.4 fl oz.) Sugar and alcohol content can vary.

Wine contains ethyl alcohol, the chemical in beer and distilled spirits. The effects of wine depend on the amount consumed, the span of time over which consumption occurs, and the amount of alcohol in the wine, among other factors. Drinking enough to reach a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.03%-0.12% may cause an overall improvement in mood, increase self-confidence and sociability, decrease anxiety, flushing of the face, and impair judgment and fine motor coordination. A BAC of 0.09% to 0.25% causes lethargy, sedation, balance problems and blurred vision. A BAC from 0.18% to 0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech (e.g. slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and vomiting. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causes stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia, vomiting, and death may occur due to respiratory depression and inhalation of vomit during unconsciousness. A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80% causes coma, life-threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning. The operation of vehicles or machinery while drunk can increase the risk of accident, and many countries have laws against drinking and driving. The social context and quality of wine can affect the mood and emotions.^[119]

The main active ingredient of wine is ethanol. A 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis found that moderate ethanol consumption brought no mortality benefit compared with lifetime abstention from ethanol consumption.^[120] A systematic analysis of data from the Global Burden of Disease study found that consumption of ethanol increases the risk of cancer and increases the risk of all-cause mortality, and that the most healthful dose of ethanol is zero consumption.^[121] Some studies have concluded that drinking small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink daily in women and two drinks daily in men) is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, and early death.^[122] Ethanol consumption increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke. Some studies that reported benefits of moderate ethanol consumption erred by lumping former drinkers and life-long abstainers into a single group of nondrinkers, hiding the health benefits of life-long abstention from ethanol.^[122] Risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking which may result in violence or accidents.^[122] About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) annually are due to ethanol use.^{[123][124][125]}

Alcohol use disorder is the inability to stop or control alcohol use despite harmful consequences to health, job, or relationships; alternative terms include alcoholism, alcohol abuse, alcohol dependence, or alcohol addiction.^{[126][127][128][129][130]} and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States.^[122] No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine.^[122][131]

Excessive consumption of alcohol can cause liver cirrhosis and alcoholism.^[132] The American Heart Association "cautions people NOT to start drinking ... if they do not already drink alcohol. Consult your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation."^[133]

Although red wine contains more of the stilbene resveratrol and of other polyphenols than white wine, the evidence for a cardiac health benefit is of poor quality and at most, the benefit is trivial.^{[134][135][136]} Grape skins naturally produce resveratrol in response to fungal infection, including exposure to yeast during fermentation. White wine generally contains lower levels of the chemical as it has minimal contact with grape skins during this process.^[137]

Wine cellars, or wine rooms, if they are above-ground, are places designed specifically for the storage and aging of wine. Fine restaurants and some private homes have wine cellars. In an active wine cellar, temperature and humidity are maintained by a climate-control system. Passive wine cellars are not climate-controlled, and so must be carefully located. Because wine is a natural, perishable food product, all types—including red, white, sparkling, and fortified—can spoil when exposed to heat, light, vibration or fluctuations in temperature and humidity. When properly stored, wines can maintain their quality and in some cases improve in aroma, flavor, and complexity as they age. Some wine experts contend that the optimal temperature for aging wine is 13 °C (55 °F),^[138] others 15 °C (59 °F).^[139]

Wine refrigerators offer a smaller alternative to wine cellars and are available in capacities ranging from small, 16-bottle units to furniture-quality pieces that can contain 500 bottles. Wine refrigerators are not ideal for aging, but rather serve to chill wine to the proper temperature for drinking. These refrigerators keep the humidity low (usually under 50%), below the optimal humidity of 50% to 70%. Lower humidity levels can dry out corks over time, allowing oxygen to enter the bottle, which reduces the wine's quality through oxidation.^[140] While some types of alcohol are sometimes stored in the freezer, such as vodka, it is not possible to safely freeze wine in the bottle, as there is insufficient room for it to expand as it freezes and the bottle will usually crack. Certain shapes of bottle may allow the cork to be pushed out by the ice, but if the bottle is frozen on its side, the wine in the narrower neck will invariably freeze first, preventing this.

There are a large number of occupations and professions that are part of the wine industry, ranging from the individuals who grow the grapes, prepare the wine, bottle it, sell it, assess it, market it and finally make recommendations to clients and serve the wine.

Related professions

Name	Description
Cellar master	A person in charge of a wine cellar
Cooper	A craftsperson of wooden barrels and casks. A cooperage is a facility that produces such casks
Négociant	A wine merchant who purchases the product of smaller growers or wine-makers to sell them under its own name
Oenologist	A wine scientist or wine chemist; a student of oenology. In the 2000s, BSc degrees in oenology and viticulture are available. A wine-maker may be trained as an oenologist, but often hires one as a consultant
Sommelier	Also called a "wine steward", this is a specialist wine expert in charge of developing a restaurant's wine list, educating the staff about wine, and assisting customers with their selections (especially food–wine pairings)
Vintner or winemaker	A wine producer; a person who makes wine
Viticulturist	A specialist in the science of grapevines; a manager of vineyard pruning, irrigation, and pest control
Wine critic	A wine expert and journalist who tastes and reviews wines for books and magazines
Wine taster	A wine expert who tastes wines to ascertain their quality and flavour
Wine waiter	A restaurant or wine bar server with a basic- to mid-level knowledge of wine and food–wine pairings

The use of wine in ancient Near Eastern and Ancient Egyptian religious ceremonies was common. Libations often included wine, and the religious mysteries of Dionysus used wine as a sacramental entheogen to induce a mind-altering state.

Baruch atah Hashem (Ado-nai) Eloheinu melech ha-olam, boray p'ree hagafen – Praised be the Lord, our God, King of the universe, Creator of the fruit of the vine.

— The blessing over wine said before consuming the drink.

Wine is an integral part of Jewish laws and traditions. The Kiddush is a blessing recited over wine or grape juice to sanctify the Shabbat. On Pesach (Passover) during the Seder, it is a Rabbinic obligation of adults to drink four cups of wine.^[141] In the Tabernacle and in the Temple in Jerusalem, the libation of wine was part of the sacrificial service.^[142] Note that this does not mean that wine is a symbol of blood, a common misconception that contributes to the Christian beliefs of the blood libel. "It has been one of history's cruel ironies that the blood libel—accusations against Jews using the blood of murdered gentile children for the making of wine and matzot—became the false pretext for numerous pogroms. And due to the danger, those who live in a place where blood libels occur are halachically exempted from using red wine, lest it be seized as "evidence" against them."^[143]

In Christianity, wine is used in a sacred rite called the Eucharist, which originates in the Gospel account of the Last Supper (Gospel of Luke 22:19) describing Jesus sharing bread and wine with his disciples and commanding them to "do this in remembrance of me." Beliefs about the nature of the Eucharist vary among denominations (see Eucharistic theologies contrasted).

While some Christians consider the use of wine from the grape as essential for the validity of the sacrament, many Protestants also allow (or require) pasteurized grape juice as a substitute. Wine was used in Eucharistic rites by all Protestant groups until an alternative arose in the late 19th century. Methodist dentist and prohibitionist Thomas Bramwell Welch applied new pasteurization techniques to stop the natural fermentation process of grape juice. Some Christians who were part of the growing temperance movement pressed for a switch from wine to grape juice, and the substitution spread quickly over much of the United States, as well as to other countries to a lesser degree.^[144] There remains an ongoing debate between some American Protestant denominations as to whether wine can and should be used for the Eucharist or allowed as an ordinary drink, with Catholics and some mainline Protestants allowing wine drinking in moderation, and some conservative Protestant groups opposing consumption of alcohol altogether.^{[citation needed]}

The earliest viticulture tradition in the Southwestern United States starts with sacramental wine, beginning in the 1600s, with Christian friars and monks producing New Mexico wine.^[145]

Alcoholic drinks, including wine, are forbidden under most interpretations of Islamic law.^[146] In many Muslim countries, possession or consumption of alcoholic drinks carry legal penalties. Iran had previously had a thriving wine industry that disappeared after the Islamic Revolution in 1979.^[147] In Greater Persia, mey (Persian wine) was a central theme of poetry for more than a thousand years, long before the advent of Islam. Some Alevi sects – one of the two main branches of Islam in Turkey (the other being Sunni Islam) – use wine in their religious services.^{[citation needed]}

Certain exceptions to the ban on alcohol apply. Alcohol derived from a source other than the grape (or its byproducts) and the date^[148] is allowed in "very small quantities" (loosely defined as a quantity that does not cause intoxication) under the Sunni Hanafi madhab, for specific purposes (such as medicines), where the goal is not intoxication. However, modern Hanafi scholars regard alcohol consumption as totally forbidden.^[149]

• Outline of wine
• Glossary of wine terms
• Classification of wine
• Winemaking
• List of grape varieties
• Health effects of wine
• Storage of wine
• Maceration (wine)
• Pressing (wine)
• Vidal blanc
• Hybrid grape
• Wine warehouses of Bercy
• Blue wine

• The Guardian & Observer Guide to Wine